{"id":4007,"date":"2025-11-20T12:39:17","date_gmt":"2025-11-20T12:39:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/?page_id=4007"},"modified":"2025-11-21T07:50:55","modified_gmt":"2025-11-21T07:50:55","slug":"whiteflies","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/?page_id=4007","title":{"rendered":"Whiteflies"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t
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Whiteflies on Palms:<\/strong><\/h3>

Detailed Damage Assessment and Effective Remedies<\/strong><\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae) are tiny, sap-sucking insects measuring 1\u20133 mm in length, with powdery white wings and a moth-like appearance.<\/p>

Though often mistaken for true flies, they belong to the order Hemiptera, closely related to aphids, scale insects, and mealybugs.<\/p>

On palm trees (family Arecaceae), certain species cause significant economic and aesthetic damage, particularly in tropical, subtropical, and greenhouse environments.<\/p>

This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the damage whiteflies inflict on palms and evidence-based, integrated pest management (IPM) remedies to contain infestations.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t

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Key Whitefly Species Affecting Palms<\/strong><\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Aleurodicus dispersus<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Common Name:
<\/strong>Spiraling whitefly
<\/strong><\/p>

Primary Palm Hosts:
<\/strong>Coconut (Cocos nucifera),
Christmas palm (Adonidia merrillii),
Royal palm (Roystonea regia)
<\/strong><\/p>

Geographic Hotspots:
<\/strong>Florida, Caribbean, Pacific Islands, South Africa
<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Dialeurodes citri<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Common Name:
<\/strong>Citrus whitefly
<\/strong><\/p>

Primary Palm Hosts:
<\/strong>Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera),
Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis)
<\/strong><\/p>

Geographic Hotspots:
<\/strong>Mediterranean, Middle East, California
<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Paraleyrodes minei<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Common Name:
<\/strong>Nesting whitefly
<\/strong><\/p>

Primary Palm Hosts:
<\/strong>Coconut, queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana)
<\/strong><\/p>

Geographic Hotspots:
<\/strong>Central America, Brazil
<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Bemisia tabaci<\/strong>
(biotypes B & Q)<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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Common Name:
<\/strong>Silverleaf whitefly
<\/strong><\/p>

Primary Palm Hosts:
<\/strong>Ornamental palms,
Pygmy date palm (Phoenix roebelenii)
<\/strong><\/p>

Geographic Hotspots:
<\/strong>Global (greenhouses & field)
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Note:<\/strong>

In South Africa (ZA), Aleurodicus dispersus and Bemisia tabaci biotype B are the most prevalent on ornamental and coconut palms, especially in KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Mechanisms of Damage to Palms<\/strong><\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Whiteflies cause direct and indirect damage through feeding, excretion, and pathogen transmission.<\/p>

Direct Feeding Damage<\/strong><\/h2>

Sap depletion: <\/strong><\/p>

Nymphs and adults insert stylet-like mouthparts into phloem, extracting amino acids and sugars.<\/p>

Consequence on palms:<\/strong>
Reduced turgor pressure \u2192 wilting of frond tips, especially in young palms.<\/p>

Visible symptoms:<\/strong><\/h2>

Chlorotic (yellow) spotting on upper leaf surfaces.<\/p>

Premature frond senescence and necrosis.<\/p>

Stunted growth in nursery palms (<2 years old).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Honeydew and Sooty Mold<\/strong><\/h2>

Whiteflies excrete excess sugars as honeydew, a sticky substrate.<\/p>

Sooty mold (Capnodium spp.) grows on honeydew, forming black fungal mats.<\/p>

Impact on palms:<\/strong><\/p>

Blocks stomata \u2192 reduced photosynthesis (up to 30\u201340% in heavy infestations; Univ. of Florida, 2022).<\/p>

Aesthetic degradation of ornamental palms (e.g., in landscapes and resorts).<\/p>

Weakened structural integrity of fronds \u2192 increased wind breakage.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Vectoring Viral and Phytoplasma Diseases<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Pathogen:
<\/strong>Palm lethal yellowing phytoplasma (16SrIV)
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Disease:
<\/strong>Lethal yellowing (LY)
<\/strong><\/p>

Palm Species Affected:
<\/strong>Coconut, date palm
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Symptoms:
<\/strong>Frond yellowing, nut drop, spear leaf collapse
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Pathogen:
<\/strong>Coconut whitefly-transmitted virescens<\/p>

Disease:
<\/strong>Coconut foliar decay virus<\/p>

Palm Species Affected:
<\/strong>Coconut
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Symptoms:
<\/strong>Necrotic streaking, reduced copra yield<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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South African context:
While LY is not established in ZA, Bemisia tabaci transmits maize streak virus-like symptoms in experimental palm trials (ARC-PPRI, 2023).<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Quantitative Damage Thresholds<\/strong><\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Low Infestation Level<\/strong><\/h2>

Adults per Frond: <\/strong><50<\/p>

Economic Impact:
<\/strong>Cosmetic damage only<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Moderate Infestation Level<\/strong><\/h2>

Adults per Frond: <\/strong>50\u2013200<\/p>

Economic Impact:
<\/strong>10\u201320% photosynthesis loss<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Severe Infestation Level<\/strong><\/h2>

Adults per Frond: >200<\/strong><\/p>

Economic Impact:
<\/strong>>30% yield loss (coconut), high mortality in seedlings<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Remedies<\/strong><\/h3>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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1. Cultural & Mechanical Controls<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Method:
Pruning and Sanitation<\/b><\/h2>

Procedure:<\/strong>
Remove heavily infested lower fronds; destroy (burn\/bury)<\/p>

Efficacy:
<\/strong>Prevents pupal survival
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Method:
High-pressure water sprays
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Procedure:<\/strong>
Use 800\u20131000 kPa jet on underside of fronds (early morning)<\/p>

Efficacy:
<\/strong>Dislodges 60\u201380% nymphs\/adults<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Method:
Yellow sticky traps
<\/b><\/h2>

Procedure:<\/strong>
Deploy 1 trap per 10 m\u00b2 at canopy height<\/p>

Efficacy:
<\/strong>Monitors & reduces adult population by 40%<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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2. Biological Control (Preferred in ZA)<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Natural Enemy:<\/strong><\/p>

Encarsia formosa (parasitoid wasp)<\/p>

Target Stage:<\/strong> Nymphs<\/p>

Release Rate (ZA):<\/strong> 5\u201310 adults\/m\u00b2<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Natural Enemy:<\/strong><\/p>

Delphastus catalinae (predatory beetle)<\/p>

Target Stage:<\/strong> Eggs & nymphs<\/p>

Release Rate (ZA):<\/strong> 1 beetle per 5 whiteflies<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Natural Enemy:<\/strong><\/p>

Nephaspis oculatus<\/p>

Target Stage:<\/strong> All stages<\/p>

Release Rate (ZA):<\/strong> 500\/ha in nurseries<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Natural Enemy:<\/strong><\/p>

Beauveria bassiana (BotaniGard\u00ae)<\/p>

Target Stage:<\/strong> Adults & nymphs<\/p>

Release Rate (ZA):<\/strong> 1\u00d710\u2078 spores\/mL spray<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Success story:<\/strong><\/p>

In KwaZulu-Natal, Encarsia releases reduced A. dispersus by 87% in 8 weeks (DAFF, 2021).<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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3. Chemical Control (Last Resort)<\/strong><\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Use only when biological\/cultural methods fail and infestation exceeds 200 adults\/frond.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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Active Ingredient:<\/p>

Imidacloprid (soil drench)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Mode of Action:<\/strong>
Systemic (neonicotinoid)<\/p>

Application Notes (ZA Registration):
<\/strong>0.5 g a.i.\/m canopy diameter; avoid during flowering (bee risk)<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Active Ingredient:<\/p>

Spirotetramat (Movento\u00ae)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
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Mode of Action:<\/strong>
Lipid biosynthesis inhibitor<\/p>

Application Notes (ZA Registration):
<\/strong>Foliar; translaminar action<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Active Ingredient:<\/p>

Horticultural oil (paraffinic)<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Mode of Action:<\/strong>
Suffocation<\/p>

Application Notes (ZA Registration):
<\/strong>1\u20132% v\/v; apply <28\u00b0C to avoid phytotoxicity<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Active Ingredient:<\/p>

Insecticidal soap<\/h2>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Mode of Action:<\/strong>
Membrane disruption<\/p>

Application Notes (ZA Registration):
<\/strong>2% solution; target underside of fronds<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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ZA Regulation:<\/strong><\/p>

Neonicotinoids restricted under Act 36 of 1947. Use SANSOR-approved products only.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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Step-by-Step Remedy Protocol (South Africa)<\/h3>
  1. Scout weekly using yellow sticky traps and frond inspection (underside).

    <\/li>
  2. Threshold trigger: >100 adults\/frond \u2192 initiate control.

    <\/li>
  3. Week 1\u20132:
    • Prune & destroy infested fronds.<\/li>
    • Apply high-pressure water wash (twice, 5 days apart).

      <\/li><\/ul><\/li>
    • Week 3:
      • Release Encarsia formosa (order from BioBee SA or Koppert SA).<\/li>
      • Hang sticky traps.

        <\/li><\/ul><\/li>
      • Week 4\u20136:
        • Monitor reduction. If <50% decline \u2192 apply BotaniGard\u00ae (fungal spray).

          <\/li><\/ul><\/li>
        • Chemical fallback (only if >200 adults persist):
          • Soil drench with imidacloprid (Confidor\u00ae) at label rate.<\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ol>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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            Preventive Strategies for Palms in ZA<\/h3>
            • Quarantine new palms for 14 days; inspect undersides.

              <\/li>
            • Avoid over-fertilization (high N \u2192 lush growth attracts whiteflies).

              <\/li>
            • Plant resistant cultivars:
              • Malayan Dwarf coconut \u2192 moderate resistance to A. dispersus.<\/li>
              • Pygmy date palm hybrids with thicker cuticles.

                <\/li><\/ul><\/li>
              • Intercrop with repellent plants: Marigolds (Tagetes erecta) reduce oviposition by 35%.<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t
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                Whiteflies pose a triple threat to palms: sap loss, sooty mold, and disease transmission.<\/strong><\/p>

                In South Africa, Aleurodicus dispersus and Bemisia tabaci are the dominant pests, capable of reducing photosynthesis by over 30% in severe cases.<\/strong><\/p>

                An IPM approach prioritizing biological control (Encarsia, predatory beetles) and cultural practices (pruning, water sprays) achieves 80\u201390% control with minimal environmental impact.<\/strong><\/p>

                Chemical interventions should be targeted, systemic, and compliant with DAFF regulations.<\/strong><\/p>

                For real-time monitoring in ZA, use the ARC-PPRI Pest App or contact Biosecurity SA for whitefly alerts.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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                References (2021\u20132025):<\/p>

                DAFF South Africa (2021). Spiraling Whitefly Management Guidelines.<\/p>

                University of Florida IFAS (2022). Whitefly IPM on Palms.<\/p>

                ARC-PPRI (2023). Bemisia tabaci Biotype Distribution in ZA.<\/p>

                EPPO Global Database (2024). Aleurodicus dispersus.<\/p>

                For commercial growers in ZA: Contact RealIPM (Kenya\/SA distributor) for Encarsia cultures.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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                Whiteflies on Palms: Detailed Damage Assessment and Effective Remedies Whiteflies (family Aleyrodidae) are tiny, sap-sucking insects measuring 1\u20133 mm in…<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"elementor_header_footer","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-4007","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4007","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=4007"}],"version-history":[{"count":79,"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4007\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4146,"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/pages\/4007\/revisions\/4146"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/palmfoundation.co.za\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=4007"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}